Non-vascular plants are among the simplest groups of land plants and mainly include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. This group is characterized by the absence of well-developed true vascular tissues, such as xylem and phloem, which are found in vascular plants. They also do not produce flowers or seeds and primarily depend on spores for reproduction and dispersal. The gametophyte is the dominant stage in their life cycle. It is the green stage commonly observed in mosses, while the sporophyte is smaller, remains attached to the gametophyte, and depends on it to a considerable extent for nutrition. The life cycle begins with the germination of a spore and the formation of a filamentous structure called the protonema in mosses. This stage then develops into the green gametophyte, which bears the reproductive organs. Male gametes are produced within the antheridia, while eggs are produced within the archegonia. The sperm requires water to reach the egg and enable fertilization. Following the formation of the zygote, the sporophyte develops and produces spores through meiosis. The spores are then dispersed to initiate a new life cycle. Many mosses live in moist and shaded environments, but they can tolerate periods of drought to varying degrees. They also play important roles in soil formation, moisture retention, and ecological cycles. These plants are evolutionarily significant because they illustrate some of the early stages of plant adaptation to life on land